Inhibition of HSP90AA1 induces abnormalities in bovine oocyte maturation and embryonic development.

In brief: HSP90AA1 is a ubiquitous molecular chaperone that can resist cellular stress, such as oxidative stress and apoptosis, and mediate the efficacy and protein folding of normal cells during heat stress, as well as many other functions. This study further reveals the role of HSP90AA1 in bovine oocyte maturation and early embryonic development. Abstract: HSP90AA1, a highly abundant and ubiquitous molecular chaperone, plays important roles in various cellular processes including cell cycle control, cell survival, and hormone signaling pathways. In this study, we investigated the functions of HSP90AA1 in bovine oocyte and early embryo development. We found that HSP90AA1 was expressed at all stages of development, but was mainly located in the cytoplasm, with a small amount distributed in the nucleus. We then evaluated the effect of HSP90AA1 on the in vitro maturation of bovine oocytes using tanespimycin (17-AAG), a highly selective inhibitor of HSP90AA1. The results showed that inhibition of HSP90AA1 decreased nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation of oocytes, disrupted spindle assembly and chromosome distribution, significantly increased acetylation levels of α-tubulin in oocytes and affected epigenetic modifications (H3K27me3 and H3K27ac). In addition, H3K9me3 was increased at various stages during early embryo development. Finally, the impact of HSP90AA1 on early embryo development was explored. The results showed that inhibition of HSP90AA1 reduced the cleavage and blastocyst formation rates, while increasing the fragmentation rate and decreasing blastocyst quality. In conclusion, HSP90AA1 plays a crucial role in bovine oocyte maturation as well as early embryo development.

Copper Chaperone Atox1 Protected the Cochlea From Cisplatin by Regulating the Copper Transport Family and Cell Cycle.

Antioxidant 1 copper chaperone (Atox1) may contribute to preventing DDP cochlear damage by regulating copper transport family and cell cycle proteins. A rat model of cochlear damage was developed by placing gelatin sponges treated with DDP in the cochlea. HEI-OC1 cells were treated with 133 µM DDP as a cell model. DDP-induced ototoxicity in rats was confirmed by immunofluorescence (IF) imaging. The damage of DDP to HEI-OC1 cells was assessed by using CCK-8, TUNEL, and flow cytometry. The relationship between Atox1, a member of the copper transport protein family, and the damage to in vivo/vitro models was explored by qRT-PCR, western blot, CCK-8, TUNEL, and flow cytometry. DDP had toxic and other side effects causing cochlear damage and promoted HEI-OC1 cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. The over-expression of Atox1 (oe-Atox1) was accomplished by transfecting lentiviral vectors into in vitro/vivo models. We found that oe-Atox1 increased the levels of Atox1, copper transporter 1 (CTR1), and SOD3 in HEI-OC1 cells and decreased the expression levels of ATPase copper transporting α (ATP7A) and ATPase copper transporting ß (ATP7B). In addition, the transfection of oe-Atox1 decreased cell apoptosis rate and the number of G2/M stage cells. Similarly, the expression of myosin VI and phalloidin of cochlea cells in vivo decreased. Atox1 ameliorated DDP-induced damage to HEI-OC1 cells or rats' cochlea by regulating the levels of members of the copper transport family.

Resveratrol Enhances Temozolomide Efficacy in Glioblastoma Cells through Downregulated MGMT and Negative Regulators-Related STAT3 Inactivation.

Chemoresistance blunts the efficacy of temozolomide (TMZ) in the treatment of glioblastoma (GBM). Elevated levels of O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) and activation of signal transducer and of transcription 3 (STAT3) have been reported to correlate with GBM resistance to alkylator chemotherapy. Resveratrol (Res) inhibits tumor growth and improves drug chemosensitivity by targeting STAT3 signaling. Whether the combined therapy of TMZ and Res could enhance chemosensitivity against GBM cells and the underlying molecular mechanism remains to be determined. In this study, Res was found to effectively improve chemosensitivities of different GBM cells to TMZ, which was evaluated by CCK-8, flow cytometry, and cell migration assay. The combined use of Res and TMZ downregulated STAT3 activity and STAT3-regulated gene products, thus inhibited cell proliferation and migration, as well as induced apoptosis, accompanied by increased levels of its negative regulators: PIAS3, SHP1, SHP2, and SOCS3. More importantly, a combination therapy of Res and TMZ reversed TMZ resistance of LN428 cells, which could be related to decreased MGMT and STAT3 levels. Furthermore, the JAK2-specific inhibitor AG490 was used to demonstrate that a reduced MGMT level was mediated by STAT3 inactivation. Taken together, Res inhibited STAT3 signaling through modulation of PIAS3, SHP1, SHP2, and SOCS3, thereby attenuating tumor growth and increasing sensitivity to TMZ. Therefore, Res is an ideal candidate to be used in TMZ combined chemotherapy for GBM.

Long noncoding RNA SNHG1 alleviates high glucose-induced vascular smooth muscle cells calcification/senescence by post-transcriptionally regulating Bhlhe40 and autophagy via Atg10.

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are emerging regulators of vascular diseases, yet their role in diabetic vascular calcification/aging remains poorly understood. In this study, we identified a down-expressed lncRNA SNHG1 in high glucose (HG)-induced vascular smooth muscle cells (HA-VSMCs), which induced excessive autophagy and promoted HA-VSMCs calcification/senescence. Overexpression of SNHG1 alleviated HG-induced HA-VSMCs calcification/senescence. The molecular mechanisms of SNHG1 in HA-VSMCs calcification/senescence were explored by RNA pull-down, RNA immunoprecipitation, RNA stability assay, luciferase reporter assay, immunoprecipitation and Western blot assays. In one mechanism, SNHG1 directly interacted with Bhlhe40 mRNA 3'-untranslated region and increased Bhlhe40 mRNA stability and expression. In another mechanism, SNHG1 enhanced Bhlhe40 protein SUMOylation by serving as a scaffold to facilitate the binding of SUMO E3 ligase PIAS3 and Bhlhe40 protein, resulting in increased nuclear translocation of Bhlhe40 protein. Moreover, Bhlhe40 suppressed the expression of Atg10, which is involved in the process of autophagosome formation. Collectively, the protective effect of SNHG1 on HG-induced HA-VSMCs calcification/senescence is accomplished by stabilizing Bhlhe40 mRNA and promoting the nuclear translocation of Bhlhe40 protein. Our study could provide a novel approach for diabetic vascular calcification/aging.

HSPB8 facilitates prostate cancer progression via activating the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway.

Prostate cancer (PC) is a clinically and biologically heterogeneous disease that lacks effective treatment. Heat shock protein B8 (HSPB8) is an important factor in the progression of various types of cancer. However, the clinical significance and biological role of HSPB8 in PC are still unclear. In this study, we determined HSPB8 expression in PC tissues by immunohistochemical staining and explored the in vitro functions of HSPB8 using HSPB8 knockdown DU145 and LNcap PC cell lines. The in vivo effect of HSPB8 was explored by a subcutaneous xenograft mice model. The human phospho-kinase array and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3 activator were utilized to explore the potential mechanism of HSPB8-induced PC progression. As a result, we found that HSPB8 was abundantly expressed in PC tissues and cell lines. HSPB8 knockdown inhibited cell proliferation and migration, promoted apoptosis and cycle repression, as well as weakened tumorigenesis ability. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that HSPB8 facilitates the malignant phenotypes of PC by activating the Janus kinase/STAT3 signaling pathway. These results proposed that HSPB8 seems to be an attractive therapeutic target for PC patients.

HSP90AA1 promotes viability and lactate production but inhibits hormone secretion of porcine immature Sertoli cells.

Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), as a molecular chaperone, regulates hundreds of protein clients under both physiological and stress conditions in eukaryotic cells. However, the functional role of HSP90 in mammalian male reproduction remains largely unknown. Here, we aimed to investigate the function and effect of HSP90AA1 on the basic and reproductive function of pig immature Sertoli cells (iSCs). We first confirmed that the transfection of pBI-CMV3-HSP90AA1 vector into porcine iSCs for 24 h significantly increased mRNA and protein levels of HSP90AA. Moreover, HSP90AA1 over-expression significantly increased cell viability and the PLK2 mRNA abundance, promoted lactate production via elevating the LDHA activity, and inhibited the secretion of anti-Mullerian hormone and estradiol. In comparison, HSP90AA inhibition by allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-AAG) (2 µM) treatment of pig iSCs for 36 h had a totally contrasting effect, i.e. significantly reduced cell viability, promoted cell apoptosis via modulating expression of genes related to cell cycle and apoptosis (CCNB1, CCN1, PLK2, PTMA, YBX3 and CASP3), suppressed lactate production via dropping LDHA activity, but increased the secretion of anti-Mullerian hormone and estradiol. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that HSP90AA1 could regulate positively cell viability and lactate production, but negatively the secretion of reproductive hormones (anti-Mullerian hormone and estradiol). However, the detailed molecular mechanism of HSP90AA1 remains to be investigated.

Tanshinone IIA inhibits cardiomyocyte apoptosis and rescues cardiac function during doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity by activating the DAXX/MEK/ERK1/2 pathway.

BACKGROUND: Heart failure (HF) is a common cardiovascular syndrome. Tanshinone IIA (Tan IIA) is a pharmacologically active monomer that exerts a significant cardioprotective effect in the clinic; however, the specific mechanisms are not fully understood. PURPOSE: We mainly investigated the protective effects of Tan IIA on doxorubicin (DOX)-induced HF. METHODS: In an in vitro study, H9C2 and HL-1 cells were cultured and treated with DOX and Tan IIA for 24 h, we investigated the mechanism underlying Tan IIA-mediated protection. In an in vivo study, a model of DOX-induced HF was established in C57BL/6 mice that were divided into the six groups randomly: a control group, a DOX group, DOX groups treated with Tan IIA (DOX+Tan IIA) at dosages of 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg/day and DOX groups treated with N-acetylcysteine (NAC) at dosages of 200 mg/kg/day. RESULT: The results demonstrated that Tan IIA significantly increased cell viability and protected against DOX-induced apoptosis. RNA-sequencing showed that the genes expression associated with the apoptotic signaling pathway was altered by Tan IIA. Among the differentially expressed genes, death-domain associated protein (DAXX), which plays an critical role in apoptotic signaling, exhibited increased expression under Tan IIA treatment. In addition, RNA interference was used to silence the expression of DAXX, which abolished Tan IIA-mediated protection against DOX-induced apoptosis; this effect was associated with extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK) expression. In the in vivo study, the echocardiography results revealed that heart function was rescued by Tan IIA, and the histomorphology results showed that Tan IIA prevented myocardial structural alteration and myofibril disruption. Furthermore, Tan IIA induced the expressions of DAXX, p-ERK1/2 and p-MEK. Tan IIA also inhibited apoptosis by suppressing the expression of cleaved caspase-8, p-P38 and cleaved caspase-3. CONCLUSION: Our results provide novel interpretations into the important role of DAXX in DOX-induced cardiotoxicity and show that Tan IIA may be a novel agent strategy for HF treatment via activating the DAXX/MEK/ERK1/2 pathway.

4-Phenylbutyric Acid (4-PBA) Derivatives Prevent SOD1 Amyloid Aggregation In Vitro with No Effect on Disease Progression in SOD1-ALS Mice.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by the degeneration of motor neurons. Mutations in the superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene, causing protein misfolding and aggregation, were suggested as the pathogenic mechanisms involved in familial ALS cases. In the present study, we investigated the potential therapeutic effect of C4 and C5, two derivatives of the chemical chaperone 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA). By combining in vivo and in vitro techniques, we show that, although C4 and C5 successfully inhibited amyloid aggregation of recombinant mutant SOD1 in a dose-dependent manner, they failed to suppress the accumulation of misfolded SOD1. Moreover, C4 or C5 daily injections to SOD1G93A mice following onset had no effect on either the accumulation of misfolded SOD1 or the neuroinflammatory response in the spinal cord and, consequently, failed to extend the survival of SOD1G93A mice or to improve their motor symptoms. Finally, pharmacokinetic (PK) studies demonstrated that high concentrations of C4 and C5 reached the brain and spinal cord but only for a short period of time. Thus, our findings suggest that use of such chemical chaperones for ALS drug development may need to be optimized for more effective results.

Computational methods to assist in the discovery of pharmacological chaperones for rare diseases.

Pharmacological chaperones are chemical compounds able to bind proteins and stabilize them against denaturation and following degradation. Some pharmacological chaperones have been approved, or are under investigation, for the treatment of rare inborn errors of metabolism, caused by genetic mutations that often can destabilize the structure of the wild-type proteins expressed by that gene. Given that, for rare diseases, there is a general lack of pharmacological treatments, many expectations are poured out on this type of compounds. However, their discovery is not straightforward. In this review, we would like to focus on the computational methods that can assist and accelerate the search for these compounds, showing also examples in which these methods were successfully applied for the discovery of promising molecules belonging to this new category of pharmacologically active compounds.

Molecular chaperone heat shock protein 70 inhibitors suppress conditioned place preference induced by morphine exposure in male rats.

Previous studies have indicated a role for molecular chaperone heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) in the development of behavioural sensitization to morphine in rodents, suggesting that Hsp70 expression following morphine exposure is involved in molecular changes that may underlie addiction vulnerability. The current study was carried out to investigate the role of Hsp70 in the positive reinforcing properties of morphine using conditioned place preference (CPP) in male rats. An unbiased CPP procedure of three phases (pre-conditioning: d1-d3; conditioning: d4-d6; and testing: d7) was used. During the conditioning phase, morphine injections (5 mg/kg, subcutaneously) were administered to induce significant place preference. To explore the effect of Hsp70 on the development and expression of morphine CPP, Hsp70 inhibitors (PES, KNK437 and methylene blue) were administered into the lateral ventricle prior to either morphine conditioning sessions or a morphine challenge on the test day. Furthermore, Hsp70 expression within the mesocorticolimbic system was measured after the treatment with KNK437, a transcriptional inhibitor. We found that PES and KNK437, respectively, injected intracerebroventricularly dose-dependently attenuated both the development and expression of morphine CPP. Methylene blue treatment demonstrated an attenuation of the development, but had no effect on the expression of morphine CPP. Following KNK437 treatment, Hsp70 expression was significantly inhibited in the shell of nucleus accumbens (NAc) during both the development and expression of morphine CPP. The findings suggest that Hsp70 in the NAc shell plays an important role in the reinforcing effects of morphine and may be involved in the development of morphine dependence.

Deletion of Specific Conserved Motifs from the N-Terminal Domain of αB-Crystallin Results in the Activation of Chaperone Functions.

Smaller oligomeric chaperones of α-crystallins (αA- and αB-) have received increasing attention due to their improved therapeutic potential in preventing protein aggregating diseases. Our previous study suggested that deleting 54-61 residues from the N-terminal domain (NTD) of αB-crystallin (αBΔ54-61) decreases the oligomer size and increases the chaperone function. Several studies have also suggested that NTD plays a significant role in protein oligomerization and chaperone function. The current study was undertaken to assess the effect of deleting conserved 21-28 residues from the activated αBΔ54-61 (to get αBΔ21-28, Δ54-61) on the structure-function of recombinant αBΔ21-28, Δ54-61. The αBΔ21-28, Δ54-61 mutant shows an 80% reduction in oligomer size and 3- to 25-fold increases in chaperone activity against model substrates when compared to αB-WT. Additionally, the αB∆21-28, ∆54-61 was found to prevent ß-amyloid (Aß1-42) fibril formation in vitro and suppressed Aß1-42-induced cytotoxicity in ARPE-19 cells in a more effective manner than seen with αB-WT or αB∆54-61. Cytotoxicity and reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection studies with sodium iodate (SI) showed that the double mutant protein has higher anti-apoptotic and anti-oxidative activities than the wild-type or αB∆54-61 in oxidatively stressed cells. Our study shows that the residues 21-28 and 54-61 in αB-crystallin contribute to the oligomerization and modulate chaperone function. The deletion of conserved 21-28 residues further potentiates the activated αBΔ54-61. We propose that increased substrate affinity, altered subunit structure, and assembly leading to smaller oligomers could be the causative factors for the increased chaperone activity of αBΔ21-28, Δ54-61.

Carnitine is a pharmacological allosteric chaperone of the human lysosomal α-glucosidase.

Pompe disease is an inherited metabolic disorder due to the deficiency of the lysosomal acid α-glucosidase (GAA). The only approved treatment is enzyme replacement therapy with the recombinant enzyme (rhGAA). Further approaches like pharmacological chaperone therapy, based on the stabilising effect induced by small molecules on the target enzyme, could be a promising strategy. However, most known chaperones could be limited by their potential inhibitory effects on patient's enzymes. Here we report on the discovery of novel chaperones for rhGAA, L- and D-carnitine, and the related compound acetyl-D-carnitine. These drugs stabilise the enzyme at pH and temperature without inhibiting the activity and acted synergistically with active-site directed pharmacological chaperones. Remarkably, they enhanced by 4-fold the acid α-glucosidase activity in fibroblasts from three Pompe patients with added rhGAA. This synergistic effect of L-carnitine and rhGAA has the potential to be translated into improved therapeutic efficacy of ERT in Pompe disease.

Bri2 BRICHOS chaperone rescues impaired fast-spiking interneuron behavior and neuronal network dynamics in an AD mouse model in vitro.

Synchronized and properly balanced electrical activity of neurons is the basis for the brain's ability to process information, to learn, and to remember. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), which causes cognitive decline in patients, this synchronization and balance is disturbed by the accumulation of neuropathological biomarkers such as amyloid-beta peptide (Aß42). Failure of Aß42 clearance mechanisms as well as desynchronization of crucial neuronal classes such as fast-spiking interneurons (FSN) are root causes for the disruption of the cognition-relevant gamma brain rhythm (30-80 Hz) and consequent cognitive impairment observed in AD. Here we show that recombinant BRICHOS molecular chaperone domains from ProSP-C or Bri2, which interfere with Aß42 aggregation, can rescue the gamma rhythm. We demonstrate that Aß42 progressively decreases gamma oscillation power and rhythmicity, disrupts the inhibition/excitation balance in pyramidal cells, and desynchronizes FSN firing during gamma oscillations in the hippocampal CA3 network of mice. Application of the more efficacious Bri2 BRICHOS chaperone rescued the cellular and neuronal network performance from all ongoing Aß42-induced functional impairments. Collectively, our findings offer critical missing data to explain the importance of FSN for normal network function and underscore the therapeutic potential of Bri2 BRICHOS to rescue the disruption of cognition-relevant brain rhythms in AD.

Ligand-based rational design, synthesis and evaluation of novel potential chemical chaperones for opsin.

Inherited blinding diseases retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and a subset of Leber's congenital amaurosis (LCA) are caused by the misfolding and mistrafficking of rhodopsin molecules, which aggregate and accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), leading to photoreceptor cell death. One potential therapeutic strategy to prevent the loss of photoreceptors in these conditions is to identify opsin-binding compounds that act as chemical chaperones for opsin, aiding its proper folding and trafficking to the outer cell membrane. Aiming to identify novel compounds with such effect, a rational ligand-based approach was applied to the structure of the visual pigment chromophore, 11-cis-retinal, and its locked analogue 11-cis-6mr-retinal. Following molecular docking studies on the main chromophore binding site of rhodopsin, 49 novel compounds were synthesized according to optimized one-to seven-step synthetic routes. These agents were evaluated for their ability to compete for the chromophore binding site of opsin, and their capacity to increase the trafficking of the P23H opsin mutant from the ER to the cell membrane. Different new molecules displayed an effect in at least one assay, acting either as chemical chaperones or as stabilizers of the 9-cis-retinal-rhodopsin complex. These compounds could provide the basis to develop novel therapeutics for RP and LCA.

Targeting transthyretin in Alzheimer's disease: Drug discovery of small-molecule chaperones as disease-modifying drug candidates for Alzheimer's disease.

Transthyretin (TTR) has a well-established role in neuroprotection in Alzheimer's Disease (AD). We have setup a drug discovery program of small-molecule compounds that act as chaperones enhancing TTR/Amyloid-beta peptide (Aß) interactions. A combination of computational drug repurposing approaches and in vitro biological assays have resulted in a set of molecules which were then screened with our in-house validated high-throughput screening ternary test. A prioritized list of chaperones was obtained and corroborated with ITC studies. Small-molecule chaperones have been discovered, among them our lead compound Iododiflunisal (IDIF), a molecule in the discovery phase; one investigational drug (luteolin); and 3 marketed drugs (sulindac, olsalazine and flufenamic), which could be directly repurposed or repositioned for clinical use. Not all TTR tetramer stabilizers behave as chaperones in vitro. These chemically diverse chaperones will be used for validating TTR as a target in vivo, and to select one repurposed drug as a candidate to enter clinical trials as AD disease-modifying drug.

Chemical chaperones targeted to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and lysosome prevented neurodegeneration in a C9orf72 repeat expansion drosophila amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) model.

BACKGROUND: ALS is an incurable neuromuscular degenerative disorder. A familiar form of the disease (fALS) is related to point mutations. The most common one is an expansion of a noncoding GGGGCC hexanucleotide repeat of the C9orf72 gene on chromosome 9p21. An abnormal translation of the C9orf72 gene generates dipeptide repeat proteins that aggregate in the brain. One of the classical approaches for developing treatment against protein aggregation-related diseases is to use chemical chaperones (CSs). In this work, we describe the development of novel 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA) lysosome/ER-targeted derivatives. We assumed that 4-PBA targeting to specific organelles, where protein degradation takes place, might reduce the 4-PBA effective concentration. METHODS: Organic chemistry synthetic methods and solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) were used for preparing the 4-PBA derivatives. The obtained compounds were evaluated in an ALS Drosophila model that expressed C9orf72 repeat expansion, causing eye degeneration. Targeting to lysosome was validated by the 19F-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique. RESULTS: Several synthesized compounds exhibited a significant biological effect by ameliorating the eye degeneration. They blocked the neurodegeneration of fly retina at different efficacy levels. The most active CS was compound 9, which is a peptide derivative and was targeted to ER. Another active compound targeted to lysosome was compound 4. CONCLUSIONS: Novel CSs were more effective than 4-PBA; therefore, they might be used as a new class of drug candidates to treat ALS and other protein misfolding disorders.

Discovery of novel Hsp90 C-terminal domain inhibitors that disrupt co-chaperone binding.

Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is an essential molecular chaperone that performs vital stress-related and housekeeping functions in cells and is a current therapeutic target for diseases such as cancers. Particularly, the development of Hsp90 C-terminal domain (CTD) inhibitors is highly desirable as inhibitors that target the N-terminal nucleotide-binding domain may cause unwanted biological effects. Herein, we report on the discovery of two drug-like novel Hsp90 CTD inhibitors by using virtual screening and intrinsic protein fluorescence quenching binding assays, paving the way for future development of new therapies that employ molecular chaperone inhibitors.

Ambroxol increases glucocerebrosidase (GCase) activity and restores GCase translocation in primary patient-derived macrophages in Gaucher disease and Parkinsonism.

Mutations in the glucocerebrosidase gene (GBA) encoding the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase (GCase) cause Gaucher disease (GD) and are the most commonly known genetic risk factor for Parkinson disease (PD). Ambroxol is one of the most effective pharmacological chaperones of GCase. Fourteen GD patients, six PD patients with mutations in the GBA gene (GBA-PD), and thirty controls were enrolled. GCase activity and hexosylsphingosine (HexSph) concentration were measured in dried blood and macrophage spots using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The effect of ambroxol on GCase translocation to lysosomes was assessed using confocal microscopy. The results showed that ambroxol treatment significantly increased GCase activity in cultured macrophages derived from patient blood monocytic cell (PBMC) of GD (by 3.3-fold) and GBA-PD patients (by 3.5-fold) compared to untreated cells (p < 0.0001 and p < 0.0001, respectively) four days after cultivation. Ambroxol treatment significantly reduced HexSph concentration in GD (by 2.1-fold) and GBA-PD patients (by 1.6-fold) (p < 0.0001 and p < 0.0001, respectively). GD macrophage treatment resulted in increased GCase level and increased enzyme colocalization with the lysosomal marker LAMP2. The possible binding modes of ambroxol to mutant GCase carrying N370S amino acid substitution at pH 4.7 were examined using molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. The ambroxol position characterized by minimal binding free energy was observed in close vicinity to the residue, at position 370. Taken together, these data showed that PBMC-derived macrophages could be used for assessing ambroxol therapy response for GD patients and also for GBA-PD patients.

HSP22 (HSPB8) positively regulates PGF2α-induced synthesis of interleukin-6 and vascular endothelial growth factor in osteoblasts.

BACKGROUND: Heat shock protein 22 (HSP22) belongs to class I of the small HSP family that displays ubiquitous expression in osteoblasts. We previously demonstrated that prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α), a potent bone remodeling factor, induces the synthesis of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) via p44/p42 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase and p38 MAP kinase in osteoblast-like MC3T3-E1 cells. In the present study, we investigated whether HSP22 is implicated in the PGF2α-induced synthesis of IL-6 and VEGF and the mechanism of MC3T3-E1 cells. METHODS: MC3T3-E1 cells were transfected with HSP22-siRNA. IL-6 and VEGF release was assessed by ELISA. Phosphorylation of p44/p42 MAP kinase and p38 MAP kinase was detected by Western blotting. RESULTS: The PGF2α-induced release of IL-6 in HSP22 knockdown cells was significantly suppressed compared with that in the control cells. HSP22 knockdown also reduced the VEGF release by PGF2α. Phosphorylation of p44/p42 MAP kinase and p38 MAP kinase was attenuated by HSP22 downregulation. CONCLUSIONS: Our results strongly suggest that HSP22 acts as a positive regulator in the PGF2α-induced synthesis of IL-6 and VEGF in osteoblasts.

Role and therapeutic potential of liquid-liquid phase separation in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a late-onset neurodegenerative disease selectively affecting motor neurons, leading to progressive paralysis. Although most cases are sporadic, ∼10% are familial. Similar proteins are found in aggregates in sporadic and familial ALS, and over the last decade, research has been focused on the underlying nature of this common pathology. Notably, TDP-43 inclusions are found in almost all ALS patients, while FUS inclusions have been reported in some familial ALS patients. Both TDP-43 and FUS possess 'low-complexity domains' (LCDs) and are considered as 'intrinsically disordered proteins', which form liquid droplets in vitro due to the weak interactions caused by the LCDs. Dysfunctional 'liquid-liquid phase separation' (LLPS) emerged as a new mechanism linking ALS-related proteins to pathogenesis. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on ALS-related gene products associated with a proteinopathy and discuss their status as LLPS proteins. In addition, we highlight the therapeutic potential of targeting LLPS for treating ALS.